Anti-Jewish Prejudice the Real Basis.
But all this does not suffice to explain that the accusation of employing blood for ritual purposes has, during six and one-half centuries and throughout a large part of Europe, rested heavily on the Jews. The Christians have never had more than a very imperfect knowledge of the language, religion, and customs of the Jews dwelling among them; whereas the Jews, as a whole, had far better information, at least as regards the language and customs of the nation among which their lot was cast. This circumstance also accounts for the superstitious and distrustful attitude toward the Jews. Just as the Roman Catholic clergyman in specifically Protestant districts was frequently invested with wonder and mystery, the Jews in Christian lands frequently became the subjects of superstitious misconceptions on the part of the Christian population. In the strife, waged at Bern in 1507, between the Dominicans and Franciscans, the assertion was made that the Dominicans had used the blood and eyebrows of a Jewish child for secret purposes (Grönneirus, "Berner Chronik," 1585, p. 622). In 1890 the magician Wawrzek Marut was sentenced in Galicia for stealing the corpses of two Jewish children from the cemetery, in order to fumigate a peasant's hut after typhoid fever. He declared that there were two kinds of typhoid: one a Catholic type, banishable through the Lord's Prayer; the other a Jewish type, removable only by means of Jewish bones (compare A. Wuttke, "Der Deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart," Berlin, 1869, Index).
General Belief in Efficacy of Blood.
Furthermore, the belief in the miraculous properties of blood may be traced far into antiquity, and its high importance to vitality must ever have been obvious (see Blood). A severe loss of blood causes faintness, syncope, and even death: "For the life of the flesh is in the blood" (Lev. xvii. 11). Hence, a sanguinary sacrifice, and particularly a human sacrifice, is regarded by the ignorant as the most precious. Hence, also, the custom of using blood to symbolize important actions; friendship was pledged and alliances were formed by intermingling the blood of both parties. At this very day blood-brotherhood is cemented in this way in Africa, as, for example, in Madagascar and Kamerun. These circumstances, in their turn, account for the belief that blood, human as well as animal, is invested with extraordinary properties. Even in ancient times human blood was considered a remedy for epilepsy (see Pliny, "Naturalis Historia," xxviii. 1, § 2; 4, § 10); and this belief has survived to the present day, the blood of newly executed persons being regarded as a particularly powerful remedial agency. As a specific against leprosy, bathing in human blood was recommended both in ancient and in medieval times. Pliny (l.c. xxvi. 1, § 5) relates that when the Egyptian kings were stricken with elephantiasis they took such baths; and this statement is in singular accord with the passage from Exodus Rabbah (i., end), which states that the leprous Pharaohs, upon the advice of their sages, commanded that 150 Jewish children should be slaughtered every morning and every evening, in order that the monarchs might bathe in blood. For other medicinal and folk-lore uses, see Blood.
Similar Jewish Belief.
Blood has a deep signification in the religion of the Old Testament. God Himself has designated blood as a means of atonement (Lev. xvii. 11.). In no other religion is the specific import of blood so clearly enunciated. Hence the oft-repeated and emphatic prohibition (existing among no other nationin such form) against the partaking of blood as food (Lev. iii. 17, vii. 26, xix. 26; Deut. xii. 16; I Sam. xiv. 32, 33; Ezek, xxxiii. 25; compare also Acts xv. 29). When with the destruction of the Second Temple the sacrifices ceased, the sprinkling of the altar with blood ceased also. But the abhorrence of the tasting of blood remained; indeed, the later Jewish legislation went even further in this respect than that of the Old Testament (see Shulḥan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 65, 1; 67, 1, 39; Eleazar of Worms, in "Roḳeaḥ"; Naphtali Benedict, in "Sefer Berith Melaḥ," Prague, 1816; S. B. Bamberger, "Amirah Lebet Ya'akob," 2d ed., Fürth, 1864). Another important principle of the Jewish law reads: (any utilization of a dead body is forbidden; 'Abodah Zarah 29b; compare J. Rabbinowicz, "Der Todtencultus bei den Juden," Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1889, §§ 21-23).
Both these sets of laws have constituted and still constitute a serious impediment to the inception and furtherance among the Jews of those ideas on blood and its applications that are found among other nations. Superstition, it is true, exists among the Jews; and there are also superstitions Jewish in origin. Furthermore, popular conceptions on medicine also were not lacking among the Jews (see the works cited in Hermann Strack, "Das Blut," p. 98; M. Grunwald," Aus Hausapotheke und Hexenküche," in "Mittheilungen der Gesellschaft für Jüdische Volkskunde," i. 1-87, Hamburg, 1900). But many of these ideas did not originate among them; and references to the blood and its employment are rare. Occasionally a Jew uses his own blood—that is, externally—for the purpose of stopping a hemorrhage (forming a clot). Nowhere, so far as the present writer is aware, is there any reference whatever to the drinking of human or animal blood for medicinal or superstitious purposes, or to the swallowing of it when dried. Finally, there is no instance of a Jew having committed murder in order to drink blood. There is always, of course, the possibility that a Jew—like one of any other race—may commit a murder. But, even if such a murder should be proved against a Jew, the only justifiable conclusion would be that the culprit committed the crime, not as a Jew, but merely as a superstitious person; just as in the case of Hundssattler and Bliefernicht, who devoured the flesh of their victims, the Christian religion could not be held accountable for the crimes committed.
No Jewish Blood-Ritual.
It may be positively asserted that there is no Jewish ritual which prescribes the use of the blood of any human being. Were there such a ritual, or were such a procedure even tolerated, there would certainly be some reference to it in the colossal mass of halakic literature which enters into every detail of ritualistic observance and of domestic life. But neither the well-informed among Christian theologians nor the inimical among converted Jews have ever been able to cite a passage from these sources showing that such prescription exists. The statements to the contrary by the Austrian professor, August Rohling, have served only to demonstrate the ignorance and malice of the man. In consequence of the undeniable weightiness of these reasons, the assertion is now frequently made that while the traditions concerning a sanguinary rite do not obtain among Judaism as a whole, they are, nevertheless, accepted by one or several sects. But this opinion, also, is untenable; for if the Talmudic Jews, collectively or in individual cases, had cultivated sanguinary rites, the Karaites would certainly not have failed to emphasize that fact again and again. Nor would the Talmudic Jews have been silent had it been possible for them to accuse the Karaites of such a ceremony. Nothing of the kind has ever been asserted by either side.
Connection with the "Slaughterer's Cut."
In order to increase the plausibility of a blood ritual among the Jews, it has become customary to speak of the "slaughterer's cut," and the application of the slaughterer's knife: it is the communal slaughterer ("shoḥet"), too, who is preferably accused of the murder of Christian children. It is noteworthy, therefore, that Joseph Teomim, in his commentary ("Peri Megadim") to the Shulḥan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 8, should relate the following: "A slaughterer bought, for use in slaughtering, a knife which an executioner had employed. R. Joseph declares this to be prohibited; for human flesh is prohibited, and in consequence of the former close contact of the knife with it, the flesh of the animals slaughtered with it would also be prohibited." Whoever accepts, therefore, the ritual killing of Christian children by Jews, must assume that the slaughterers are equipped with two sets of knives, one set for animals, and the other for Christian children! It is noteworthy, also, in this connection that in the very cases in which the "slaughterer's cut" was most vigorously discussed—as, for example, at Xanten in 1891—a close inspection of the wound demonstrated beyond a doubt that such a cut had not been made. Finally, it should be mentioned that those who charge an intentional secreting of the blood for ritual purposes have an entirely erroneous conception of the actual quantity of blood in the body. The weight of the blood constitutes only one-fourteenth to one-thirteenth (7.17-7.7 per cent) of the total weight of the body. The total quantity of blood lost in the case of death through wounds is only about one-half of this blood-content of the body, or, in the case of decapitation (where the loss of blood is heaviest), about 72 per cent of it. Thus, the quantity of blood that can possibly be found on the spot and on the clothing of the victim is much smaller than most persons suppose (compare "Der Xantener Knabenmord vor dem Schwurgericht zu Cleve," July 4-14, 1892, Berlin, 1893, pp. 54 et seq., 61 et seq., 481 et seq.; J. Marcus, "Etude Médico-Légale du Meurtre Rituel," Paris, 1900).
Accusation Pronounced False.
The proselytes who have confirmed the blood accusation against the Jews have always been malicious and ignorant enemies of their people; and upon their testimony, devoid as it is of proof, no reliance can be placed. Among these proselytes were: Samuel Friedrich Brenz, author of the book "Jüdischer Abgestreifter Schlangen-Balg," Nuremberg, 1614; Paul Christian Kirchner, author of "Jüdisches Ceremoniel," Frankfort, 1720; and Paulus Meyer (seeStrack, l.c. pp. 105-160 et seq.). It is very note-worthy, however, that such pronounced anti-Jewish proselytes as J. Pfefferkorn ("Speculum Adhortationis Judaicæ ad Christum," 1507) and Julius Morosini ("Via della Fede Mostrata agli Ebrei," 1683) have pronounced the accusation false. In recent times August Rohling of Prague has become widely recognized as the principal authority for such anti-Jewish statements; but Strack, in "Das Blut" (ch. xvii.), furnishes unassailable proof that, both from a scientific and from a moral point of view, Rohling's assertions are utterly unreliable.
Among the large number of observant Jews and Christians who have refuted the blood accusation are the following; viz., Jews: Manasseh b. Israel, author of "Vindiciæ Judæorum," London, 1656, who took a solemn oath that the Jews were guiltless of this charge, an oath which was repeated at London June 30, 1840, by the rabbis Solomon Hirschell and David Meldola. Other Jews who protested were Jacob Emden and Jonathan Eybeschütz. Protests have also been expressed in poetry and "Memorbücher" designed only for Jewish readers. Proselytes: Johann Emanuel Veith, the eminent preacher in the Cathedral of St. Stephen, Vienna; and Alexander McCaul, who, in "Reasons for Believing that the Charge Lately Revived Against the Jewish People Is a Baseless Falsehood," London, 1840, published a protest signed by fifty-eight converts, of whom the first was M. S. Alexander, bishop of the Anglican Church at Jerusalem (d. 1845). It runs as follows: "We, the undersigned, by nation Jews, and having lived to years of maturity in the faith and practise of modern Judaism, but now, by the grace of God, members of the Church of Christ, do solemnly protest that we have never directly nor indirectly heard, much less known, among the Jews, of the practise of killing Christians or using Christian blood, and that we believe this charge, so often brought against them formerly, and now lately revived, to be a foul and Satanic falsehood." Popes: See "Die Päpstlichen Bullen über die Blutbeschuldigung," Berlin, 1893, and Munich (Aug. Schupp), 1900, contains the bulls of Innocent IV., Gregory X., Martin V., Paul III., and the opinion of Lorenzo Ganganelli (later Clement XIV.). Many popes have either directly or indirectly condemned the blood accusation; no pope has ever sanctioned it. Monarchs: The German emperors Frederick II. (1236); Rudolph of Habsburg (1275); Frederick III. (1470); Charles V. (1544); the Bohemian kings Ottocar II. (1254), etc.; the Polish kings Boleslaw V. Pius (1264); Casimir III. (1334); Casimir IV. (1453); Stephen Báthori (1576); and others. For Hungary see the constitution of 1791; for Turkey, 'Abd al-Majid (1840). Christian scholars and divines: Johann Christoph Wagenseil (1633-1705); Johann Jakob Schudt, author of "Jüdische Merkwürdigkeiten" (1714); Johann Salomo Semler (1725-91); Alex. McCaul; Franz Delitzsch (1813-90); J. J. I. von Döllinger (1799-1890); and many others.
Bibliography: H. L Strack, Das Blut im Glauben und Aberglauben der Menschheit, mit Besonderer Berücksichtigung der Volksmedizin und des Jüdischen Blutritus, 8th ed., Munich, 1900;
I. B. Levinsohn, Efes Damim, Wilna, 1837;
Corvé, Ueber den Ursprung der Wider die Juden Erhobenen Beschuldigung, etc., Berlin, 1840;
Christliche Zeugnisse Gegen die Blutbeschuldigung der Juden, Berlin, 1882;
Berliner, Gutachten Ganganelli's, Berlin, 1888;
Blut-Aberglaube, Sonder-Abdruck aus der Oester. Wochenschrift, Vienna, 1891;
Franz Delitzsch, Schachmatt den Blutlügnern Rohling und Justus, Erlangen, 1883;
Chwolson, Blutanklage, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1901.G. H. L. S.
The following list of cases, where the blood accusation has been raised, with short indications of the results and of the authorities for the statements, may be found useful for reference. Some of the more frequently quoted authorities are referred to by abbreviations as follows:
A. R. = Amador de los Rios, "Historia de los Judios en España"; A. J. Y. B. = "American Jewish Year Book," 1901-2; Csl. = Cassel, article "Juden," in Ersch and Gruber, "Encyc." ser. 2, part xxvii.; Sch. = Scherer, "Rechtsverhältnisse der Juden in Oesterreich," 1901; St. = Stobbe, "Die Juden in Deutschland"; Str. = Strack, "Das Blut"; Jb. = Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissenschaft"; Zz. = Zunz, "Synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters."
1144 Norwich (St. William): James and Jessopp, "St. William of Norwich"; Jacobs, "Jews of Angevin England," pp. 19-256.
1168 Gloucester (Harold): "Gloucester Chronicle," ed. Hart, i. 20; Jacobs, l.c., p. 45.
1171 Blois (31 burned; 17 Jewesses, singing 'Alenu): Zz. p. 24.
1181 Bury St. Edmunds (St. Robert): Jacobs, l.c., p. 75.
1192 Winchester (boy): Richard of Devizes, ed. Howlett, p. 435; Jacobs, l.c., pp. 146-148.
1199 (?) Erfurt (3 Jews hanged, 3 burned [2 women]): Zz. p. 26.
1235 Wolfsheim (18 Jews killed): "Monumenta Germaniæ," xvi. 31; St. p. 281.
1247 (Mar. 26) Valréas: "Rev. Etudes Juives," vii. 304.
1255 Lincoln (Little St. Hugh): Matthew Paris, "Historia Major," ed. Luard, v. 516-518, 522, 543; Jacobs, "Jewish Ideals," pp. 192 et seq.
1267 Pforzheim: Alonzo á Spina, "Fortalitum Fidei," 5th cruelty; I. Loeb, "Josef Haccohen," p. 40.
1270 (June 29) Weissenburg, Alsace: "Mon. Germ." xvii. 191; St. p. 282.
1283 Mayence (10 Jews killed): "Mon. Germ." xvii. 210; St. p. 282.
1285 Munich (90 Jews killed): Zz. p. 33; "Mon. Germ." xi. 210, 872; xvii. 415; St. p. 282.
1286 Friesland: Csl. p. 79a; Zz. p. 33.
1286 (June 28) Oberwesel and Boppard (St. Werner, 40 Jews killed): Grätz, "Gesch. der Juden," vii. 201, 478; "Mon. Germ." xvii. 77; St. p. 282.
1287 (May 2) Salzburg: Csl. p. 79a.
1288 (April 24) Troyes: Auto da fé (13 burnt), "Rev. Et. Juives," ii., 199 et seq.
1290 Laibach: Sch. p. 525.
1292 Colmar: Böhmer, "Fontes Rerum Germanicarum," ii. 30; St. p. 283.
1292 Krems (2 Jews broken on wheel): "Mon. Germ." xi. 658; St. p. 283; Sch. p. 348 (who gives the date as 1293).
1294 Bern (Rudolf): Böhmer, l.c., ii. 32; "Arch. Oester. Geschichtsquellen," iii. 143; St. p. 283.
1302 Remken: Böhmer, l.c., ii. 39; St. p. 283.
1303 Weissensee (boy found hanged): Zz. p. 36; St. p. 283; Csl. p. 79b.
1305 Prague and Vienna: Zz. p. 36; Csl. p. 79b.
1308 Thuringia: Csl. p. 79b.
1317 Chinon: Str. p. 144.
1329 Savoy, Geneva, Romilly, Annecy, etc.: Str. ib.
1331 Ueberlingen: Csl. p. 79b; Zz. p. 38.
1387 Strasburg: "Urkundenbuch der Stadt Strassburg," vi. 207; Jewish Encyclopedia, i. 457b.
1345 Munich (Heinrich): Str. p. 145.
XIV. cent. (end of) Vialana: "Rev. Etudes Juives," x. 232-236; Jb. viii.
1401 Diessenhofen: Zz. p. 47; Ulrich, "Sammlung Jüd. Gesch. in der Schweiz," p. 248; St. p. 288; Löwenstein, "Bodensee," p. 82.
1407 (Oct. 26, 3d day of Easter) Cracow: Zz. p. 47; Csl. p. 133b; Dlugoss, "Historia Poloniæ," i. 186; Jost, "Gesch. der Israeliten," vii. 279.
1428 Regensburg (Ratisbon): Zz. p. 48; Csl. p. 79b.
1430 Ravensburg, Ueberlingen, Lindau: Zz. p. 48.1435 Palma: A. R. ii. 85-87; Mut, "Mallorca," vii. xv.
1442 Lienz, Tyrol: Borrelli, "Dissertazione," p. 243b; Sch. pp. 589-591.
1453 Arles: Zz. p. 50.
1462 Rinn (Andreas): Str. p. 145; Sch. pp. 592-596 (denies).
1468 (Dec. 25) Sepulveda: A. R. iii. 166.
1470 Endingen: Sch. p. 430; Schreiber, "Urkundenbuch," ii. 520; St. p. 291.
1473 Regensburg: Zz. p. 51; Csl. p. 79b.
1475 Trent (Simon): Sch. pp. 596-614, 643-647, and the note to pp. 598-599 giving bibliography.
1476 Regensburg (through the apostate Wolfram): Zz. p. 51; St. pp. 77, 292; Sch. p. 615.
1480 (July 4) Venice (Sebastian of Porto Buffole; 3 Jews burned): "Jüdische Merkwürdigkeiten," ii. 256; Sch. p. 615.
1490 La Guardia: Isidore Loeb, in "Rev. Etudes Juives," xv.
1494 Tyrnau (12 Jews and 2 Jewesses burned; the remainder expelled): Zz. p. 52; Schudt, l.c., i. 115; Bergl, "Gesch. der Juden in Ungarn," p. 51.
1504 Frankfort-on-the-Main: Jb. xv. 21.
1505 Budweis (child murder accusation; 13 Jews drowned themselves): Oefele, "Scriptores," i. 135; St. p. 292.
1518 Geisingen: Löwenstein, in "Zeitschrift f. d. Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland," iii. 383; Jewish Encyclopedia, i. 1.
1529 Poesing (30 Jews burned): Zz. p. 55; Némethy, in "Neuzeit," xxviii.; Jb. xi.; D. Kaufmann, in "Monatsschrift," xxxviii.
1540 Neuburg: Zz. p. 57; Csl. p. 79b.
1545 Amasia, Asia Minor (many hanged; Dr. Joseph Abiob burned): "Shebet Yehudah," iii.; Zz. p. 58; I. Loeb, "Joseph Haccohen," p. 432 (who gives the date as 1542).
1553 Asti (Jews imprisoned on murder charge): Zz. p. 336.
1554 Rome (accusation threatens through Hananel Foligno, averted by Alexander Farnese): Vogelstein and Rieger, "Gesch. der Juden in Rom," ii. 151.
1564 Byelsk: "Regesti," sub anno.
1570 Brandenburg (case of Lippold): Zz. p. 338, Jost, l.c., viii. 213-214; Csl. p. 93a, b (gives the date as 1573).
1571 Hellerspring: Csl. p. 79b.
1593 (Dec.) Frankfort-on-the-Main (blood accusation suggested in a trial of a Jew): "Rev. Etudes Juives," xiv. 282-289.
1598 Luck (3 Jews executed): Zz. p. 340.
1623 Ragusa (Isaac Jeshurun martyred): Zz. p. 342.
1650 Razinai: Jb. xvi.
1654 Gt. Poland: D. Kaufmann, in "Monatsschrift," xxxviii. 89-96; Vogelstein and Rieger, l.c., ii. 211.
1668 Vienna: Zz. p. 346.
1670 (Jan. 17) Metz (Raphael Levi burned): Zz. p. 346; Csl. p.79 b.
1691 Wilna (4 Jews executed for child-murder): Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." Nos. 3691, 4028, 4030; Zz. p. 348.
1696 (June 8-July 4) Posen (false murder charge): Zz. pp. 348-349.
1698 Kaidan and Zausmer: Wolf, "Bibl. Hebr." iii. 380; Zz. p. 349.
1705 Viterbo: Vogelstein and Rieger, l.c., ii. 233; Roest, "Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl." i. 55.
1710 (April 5) Neamtz, Moldavia: "Rev. Etudes Juives," xiii. 137; A. J. Y. B. p. 37.
1710 Orlinghausen: Csl. p. 79b.
1712 Frankfort-on-the-Main: Csl. p. 79b.
1714 Roman, Rumania: A. J. Y. B. p. 37.
1721 Danzig and Sinigaglia (child murder): Zz. p. 352.
1736 Posen (lasted four years): Zz. p. 353.
1743 Jaslau (Jew quartered): Zz. p. 354.
1745 Fürth (synagogue closed through false charge by apostate): Zz. p. 354.
1756 (Passover) Jampol, Poland: Vogelstein and Rieger, l.c., ii. 246.
1764 Orcuta, Hungary: Str. p. 148.
1783 Botoshani, Rumania: A. J. Y. B. p. 43.
1788 Totiz: Jb. x. 45.
1791 Tasnád, Transylvania (Hungary): Str. p. 148.
1797 Galatz, Rumania (4 killed; synagogue burned): A. J. Y. B. p. 45.
1801 (April
Bucharest (128 Jews killed by soldiers and populace): Ib. p. 48.
1803 Neamtz, Moldavia (4 Jews imprisoned): Ib. p. 48.
1811 Talowitza: Ib. p. 49.
1816 Piatra, Moldavia: Ib. p. 50.
1823 Velizh, Vitebsk (lasted twelve years): St. p. 186; Jost, l.c., xi. 341.
1824 Bakau: Psantir, "Korot," 1873, ii. 142; Loeb, "La Situation des Israélites en Turquie, en Serbie, et en Roumanie," p. 143.
1829 Boleslaw-on-the-Weichsel: Str. p. 149.
1829 Babowno: Jb. xviii. 65.
1834 (July 13) Neuenhoven, near Düsseldorf: Str. 149.
1838 Ferrara: Jost, l.c., xi. 285, note.
1839 Niezdow: Str. p. 150.
1840 Near Aix-la-Chapelle: Jost, l.c., xi. 345, note.
1840 (Feb. 5) Damascus (disappearance of Father Thomas; 13 Jews arrested and tortured; 4 died): Jost, l.c., xi. 346.
1840 Trianda, Rhodes: Jost, l.c., xi. 351-353.
1843 (Oct.) Marmora: Jost, l.c., xi. 379.
1844 Stobikowka: Str. p. 150.
1837 to 1847 Fiorenzola, Buffeto, Monticelli, Cortemaggiore: Jost, l.c., xi. 265, note.
1857 Saratov: Chwolson.
1859 (Apr. 14) Galatz, Rumania: Loeb, l.c., p. 145.
1861 Chavlian: id. 261, 262.
1863 (March) Smyrna: Ellenberger, "Die Leidender Juden."
1867 (Oct. 3) Galatz (90 Jews injured; 4 synagogues destroyed): Loeb, l.c., p. 171.
1867 (Dec. 22) Calarash, Rumania: Loeb, l.c., p. 166.
1877 Kutais, Transcaucasia: Chwolson, xii.
1882 (Apr. 1) Tisza-Eszlár (disappearance of Esther Solymosi).
1891 Corfu: Str. p. 151.
1891 (June 29) Xanten: Jewish Encyclopedia, i. 645b.
1891 (June) Nagy-Szokol: Str. p. 153.
1892 Eisleben: Str. p. 156.
1892 Ingrandes, France: Str. p. 157.
1892 Bakau, Rumania: Str. p. 158.
1893 (March) Kolin, Bohemia: Str. p. 158.
1893 (June 9) Holleschau: Str. p. 159.
1893 Prague: Str. p. 160.
1894 Berent, Prussia: Str. p. 162.
1898 Skaisgirren: Str. p. 163.
1899 (Mar. 29) Polna, Bohemia.
1900 (Jan. 7) Nachod, Bohemia.
1900 (Mar. 28) Konitz, W. Prussia.G. J.
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